Guillaume de Machaut and the Ars Nova
Guillaume de Machaut and the Ars Nova
THE date 1300 marks a turning point in the history of
music. The old style known as the Ars Antiqua was on the
decline, and about this time (1300? 1303? 1307?) was born a bold
reformer who was both a poet and musician of the first order, and whose
genius was to a great extent behind the Ars Nova movement. His
name was Guillaume de Machaut (or Machault).
Few periods in history come nearer to our own than the fourteenth
century, although it may seem far away to us today and so cruel in its
customs. The names of a few of its princes are not the only reminders
of those sinister times. "Bel" he may have been, but Philippe
IV was none the less a rogue and a scheming rascal; Louis X followed
his father's example, and his quarrelsome nature earned him the name of
"Hutin". As for Charles le Mauvais who is to be counted among Machaut's
masters... The date of 1377 must also be remembered for it marks the
beginning of a war that was to be known as the Hundred Years War. The
first part of this war was so disastrous for France just at the time
when she reigned supreme over the arts, and especially music.
Guillaume de Machaut was to belong to his times, and was to be
remembered for having fully accomplished each aspect of his varied
personality – that of courtier, lover, ecclesiastic, man of letters and
musician. He was secretary and councillor to Jean de Luxembourg and
accompanied his master on his travels to Flanders, Italy, Germany,
Lithuania and Russia. He continued to serve his daughter Bonne de
Luxembourg and her two sons, the duc de Berry and the Dauphin, the
future Charles V. He was the hero of a love affair (platonic?) with a
twenty year-old admiror, Péronne d'Armentières, recorded for posterity
in the "roman lyrique", le Veoir dict (true tale). He became
canon of Reims cathedral and settled in this town in 1337. It was there
that he wrote the greater part of his poetry and music, and wrote the
first mass to be entirely composed by one musician, known probably
without justification as the "Mass for the Coronation of Charles V".
Machaut was certainly present at this ceremony in 1364. He died in 1377
in Reims, the capital of the Champagne province from which he probably
originated. Machaut was the first composer to really acquire a musical
personality, just as Gérard d'Orléans, an artist of the same period
(1360) who painted the portrait of Jean le Bon, has come to be known as
the founder of the French School. The chief reason for the
establishment of Machaut's personality was his musical language, and he
explored all its different possibilities. He represented the Ars
Nova, and this would seem to be a suitable point to explain in what
ways it was different from its predecessor, the Ars Antiqua of
Pérotin.
The name Ars Nova comes from the title of a theoretical work by
Philippe de Vitry (1291-1361), a great theorist, musician, and
contemporary of Machaut. The music of the Ars Antiqua was based
essentially on the intervals of the fourth and the fifth; the third and
the sixth were now introduced by the Ars Nova which meant a
step in the direction of modern tonal harmony, a relationship between
tonic and dominant, and the determining factor of the leading-note.
Music thus became "expressive" and capable of interpreting all
kinds of emotions. Whereas, before, a liturgical or non-liturgical text
had been used indifferently, there was now a distinction between the
two. The music of the Ars Nova opened a debate which has still
not been settled. Should esthetics be more important than the
liturgical function of music? Already in 1322, aware of the danger,
Pope John XXII (Machaut's protector!) took a stand and drew up the
famous bill the "Docta Sanctorum".
To be more accurate with regard to the style of the two schools of
Western polyphonic music, we must be conscious of the relative values
of the liturgical square notation used by the Ars Antiqua, and
should refer to the studies of Armand Machabey. The general use of "modi",
that is to say ternary cells similar to the meters of ancient times,
imposed the ternary rhythm.
The Ars Nova on the other hand introduced binary rhythms. By
modifying the definition of the term modus, an either binary or
ternary subdivision of the Long was possible. Another important point
was that the system of notation became more complicated, and lastly,
time-signatures began to appear.
Machaut's position was unique in that at the same time as his musical
reforms, he also undertook the reform of poetry.
We must remember that the history of poetry in the Middle Ages is
divided into two groups: that of the minstrels, and that of the
rhetorical poets. With the first group, poetry and music were closely
linked, and the trouvère was seconded by a musician. His poetry was
performed by the minstrel who sang and recited before an audience.
The poetry of the second group was written expressly for the reader.
Machaut was the first rhetorician. Manuscripts became more common, and
on listening to the minstrel, people learned to write. The reciter
became the copyist. Moving thus from oral to written poetry, the forms
became fixed: rondel, ballade, chant royal (an elaboration of the
ballade), lai and virelai. The once free art of narrative in poetry had
now to obey strict rules of rhyme and meter. The concern for form
became more important than the poetry itself. However, the subjects
chosen by Machaut remain gallant, and marked by the influence of the Roman
de la Rose. Some specialists consider this strict obedience to the
new rules regarding the versification of poétrie when applied
to traditional subjects, to be the sign of an impoverishment during the
first half of the fourteenth century. However, this new "rhetoric"
of which Machaut became the master, paved the way to such admirable,
unique poets as Eustache Deschamps, Christine de Pisan, Charles
d'Orléans and François Villon. Machaut, the first of these, gave
elasticity to the rigour of this development of poetry by using long
measured melismas, built like the melodies on which they are based.
He wrote a great deal of poetry; 200 ballades (42 set to music), 21
rondeaux, 33 virelais, 1 complainte, 1 chanson royale, 23 motets, 19
lais set to music, the mass and a double hoquet.
From this list we can approach the music proposed on this disc, and
witness the diversity of Machaut's genius.
A few comments concerning the different forms are perhaps necessary,
beginning with the last – the hoquet. This was a means for the Ars
Nova composer to show himself highly advanced, and the abuse of
this technique resulted in the polyphony becoming so dense that the
text set to music was unintelligible. The principle was that while one
voice sang a note, there was a rest at this point in the other voice
part and vice-versa systematically so there resulted a continuous
uninterrupted sound, and an impression of "hiccups".
The group of musicians Ars Antiqua play the Hoquet David. David
being the last word of the Gradual Viderunt, on which Pérotin
had already written an organum. The hoquet David is performed
here in an instrumental version (harp, flute and viol).
The ballade, originally a dance-song, is a form of poetry which
has become famous particularly through the works of Charles d'Orléans
and Villon. It was Machaut who determined the form. He accompanies a
melody with one, two or three instruments, and consisting of three
verses followed by a refrain. Sixteen of these ballades are written in
two parts. Three are for two or three vocal parts. Thirty-seven are
monodies, and one is isorhythmic. Machaut recommends that the
performers should «mette telle ou telle sur les instruments».
In the decasyllabic ballade Mes espoirs se combat, the
counter-tenor voice is accompanied by two other parts, the contratenor
played on the luth, and the tenor by the viol.
The virelai, which Machaut describes as a "chanson balladée",
also originated from the dance-song. It consists of three verses
containing two different rhymes with a refrain at the beginning and end
of each verse. Twenty-four of Machaut's virelais are monodic and Tuit
mi penser is a fine example of the expressiveness he achieves.
Plus dur que dyamant is a virelai played in two different
versions, first the harp and then the lute.
Rose, liz, printemps, verdure is one of the most beautiful
rondeaux that Machaut wrote. Its freshness and lyrical quality are a
foretaste of Ronsard, and the music is entirely worthy of the poem, its
originality and contrapuntal mastery being evident. The voice is set
against four instruments: triplum – lute, contratenor – flute,
contratenor II and tenor – two viols. The musical structure is as
follows: the verses 1, 3, 4, 5 and 7 are sung to the melody of the
first verse, and verses 2, 6 and 8 to the melody of the second verse.
The monadic complainte is taken from the Remède de Fortune.
Tels rit au main qui le soir pleure is a proverb often used by
the poets (Tel qui rit vendredi dimanche pleurera – he who laughs
Friday will cry Sunday). Of supple melody and freedom of form, this
piece has a popular flavour.
The celebrated rondeau Ma fin est mon commencement is a perfect
example of the form, the text describing the procedure by which it is
set to music. The poem gives the musician the opportunity to use a
device well known today but quite new at the time: the retrograde
principle, which consists of reproducing a musical phrase backwards.
Each repeat is varied with a different instrumentation.
The tenor part accompanying the voice in the rondeau Douce dame
tant com' vivray is given to a velvet-toned flute.
The Chanson roîale it has been said is a development of the
ballade. Machaut's composition is performed by the sopranino flute and
the musette.
Of an incomparable melodic grace, the virelai Douce dame jolie
is monodic.
Plourez dames is certainly one of Machaut's finest ballades, its
refined harmonies conveying a note of sadness, and the vocal part the
sense of the poem; there is a remarkable leap of a seventh on the word
"plourez". Plucked and bowed strings help to clarify the polyphony.
The rondeau Ce qui soutient moy is distinguished by its freedom
of rhythm.
In the virelai Dame à vous sans retollir, the restricted
low-lying ambitus is most expressive.
The rondeau Sans cœur dolens with its poignant drop in the
voice part, contains a modulation most typical of Fauré.
Lastly the ballade from the Remède de Fortune entitled Dame
de qui toute ma joye vient is in an energetic passionate vein, the
instruments being the harp and viols.
Such was the self-contained 'modern' art of Guillaume de Machaut, who
even wrote exquisite poetry on the subject of music:
Wherever it may be, it brings joy
And comfort to the discomforted
People have only to lend an ear to it
And they are made to rejoice…
Joël-Marie Fauquet
(translated by Charles Whitfield)
